Majority of Kazakhstanis Are Religious, But Discrimination Persists, Studies Suggest

A recent study by analysts at Energyprom.kz sheds light on the religious landscape of Kazakhstan. According to data from the educational platform Jagran Josh, Kazakhstan's population includes approximately 15.4 million believers.  The majority, 11.3 million, identify as Muslim, while about 4 million identify as Christian. A smaller segment, approximately 670,000 individuals, comprise atheists, agnostics, and those with no religious affiliation. Additionally, there are around 5,000 Hindus, 40,000 Buddhists, and about 50,000 practitioners of traditional local beliefs. It is important to note that these figures are compiled from various sources, some dating back to 2015 or earlier. Consequently, they are more suitable for broad international comparisons rather than a precise assessment of Kazakhstan's current religious demographics. Regional Characteristics of Religiosity More recent data, based on a 2024 survey of 1,500 respondents (aged 18 to 65) conducted by the Committee on Religious Affairs of the Republic of Kazakhstan, provides deeper insights into domestic religiosity. The survey revealed that 24.1% of Kazakhstani citizens consider themselves practicing believers who strictly observe religious precepts. The majority, 62.7%, identify as believers but observe only some rituals and traditions. About 9.2% of respondents stated they do not consider themselves believers yet still participate in certain rituals. A smaller proportion, 1.3%, reported no religious affiliation and no participation in rituals, while 0.9% identified as convinced atheists and 0.5% as agnostics. Regionally, Shymkent recorded the largest share of conditionally religious people who observe only certain traditions, at 77.6%. The Atyrau region exhibited the highest proportion of strict practitioners, at 46%. Conversely, the Pavlodar region led in the number of non-believers who nevertheless participate in rituals, at 24.6%. Atyrau also had the highest proportion of complete non-believers, at 10%. In terms of religious affiliation, 65.1% of respondents identified as followers of the Hanafi school of Islam, with another 11.6% belonging to other branches of Islam. Orthodox Christianity was practiced by 14.8% of respondents, Catholicism by 2.1%, and Protestantism by 1.8%. Hinduism, Buddhism, paganism, and Tengriism collectively accounted for less than 2%. An additional 0.8% reported believing but not identifying with any particular religion. The proportion of daily prayers increased from 17.7% to 19.3% over the last quarter. However, 27.9% of respondents reported never praying. Regarding attendance at places of worship (mosques, churches, etc.), 6.2% visit regularly, 14.5% do so weekly, and 33.8% two to three times a year. Notably, 10.4% of respondents have never been to a place of worship. Daily religious discussions with relatives were reported by 4.3% of Kazakhstani citizens, while 27.3% admitted that they never discuss religion within their families. Religious Discrimination Over the past three months, 41.3% of respondents reported experiencing discrimination on religious grounds. The most frequently cited incidents included the publication of offensive images (19.3%), negative comments on social media (11.5%), bans on visiting mosques or churches by the clergy (7.8%), and restrictions on education due to wearing a hijab (10.8%). Although official statistics on incidents directly classified as religiously motivated are not maintained, 54 criminal offenses were recorded between January and April 2025...

U.S. Commission Again Cites Turkmenistan for Religious Freedom Violations

The U.S. Commission on International Religious Freedom (USCIRF) has once again designated Turkmenistan as a “Country of Particular Concern” (CPC), citing ongoing and systematic violations of religious freedom in its 2024 annual report. Persistent State Control and Persecution The USCIRF report emphasizes that religious freedoms in Turkmenistan remain severely restricted, with the state maintaining tight control over religious life and prosecuting individuals whose beliefs deviate from officially sanctioned interpretations. Notably, the commission highlighted the imprisonment of ten Muslims for participating in peaceful religious activities, a case that underscores the regime's repressive stance toward nonconforming Islamic practices. Turkmenistan’s legal framework continues to draw criticism. The 2016 Religion Law prohibits unregistered religious groups and heavily restricts the distribution of religious literature, instruction, and rituals. The 2015 Law on Combating Extremism also remains a concern, as its vague provisions allow for the prosecution of peaceful religious activity. Harassment of Religious Minorities The report also documents the continued harassment of Protestant Christians and Jehovah’s Witnesses. In one case, a mosque official in Lebap province reportedly threatened to "shut down" a pastor of an unregistered Protestant church, prompting a visit from the Ministry of National Security. The pastor’s relatives later received anonymous threats. In January, law enforcement officers raided a Jehovah’s Witnesses' home in the village of Sakara, detaining five individuals who were subjected to eight hours of interrogation. Restrictions on Religious Travel The Turkmen authorities also restrict international travel on religious grounds. In January 2024, Pygamberdy Allaberdyev, a lawyer and activist from Balkanabat, was barred from traveling to Iran to attend a relative’s funeral. According to USCIRF, he was informed by Department of Homeland Security officials that he was under surveillance and would be prohibited from leaving the country for five years. Religion and the Cult of Personality The commission's report also criticizes the use of religion to reinforce the cult of personality surrounding former president Gurbanguly Berdimuhamedov. Although he currently serves as chairman of the Khalk Maslahaty, his influence remains widespread. Officials in Balkanabat and Turkmenbashi reportedly interfered with wedding ceremonies, mandating the exclusive use of Turkmen music, including songs from the former president’s personal repertoire. Authorities have also targeted religious expression among civil servants. Men have been forced to shave their beards, and women have been ordered to remove their hijabs. Ahead of the Berdimuhamedov family’s vacation in Avaza, police carried out raids targeting religious symbols. In October, women in Ashgabat wearing hijabs were reportedly detained, had their belongings confiscated, and were banned from traveling abroad. They were also lectured about the secular nature of the state. Policy Recommendations In its conclusions, USCIRF recommends targeted sanctions against officials and agencies responsible for egregious violations of religious freedom, including asset freezes and visa bans. The commission also urged the U.S. Congress to take a more active role in addressing these issues through hearings and delegations to the region. Turkmenistan has consistently appeared on USCIRF’s CPC list since 2000, reflecting its entrenched policies of religious control, suppression of non-state-approved faiths, and ongoing violations against...