History - The Times Of Central Asia

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Soft Power

Beneath the Silk Road: China’s Archaeological Diplomacy in Uzbekistan

As China’s economic footprint expands across Central Asia, Beijing is quietly pursuing another, subtler form of influence - one that reaches beneath the soil rather than above it. Alongside highways, pipelines, and industrial parks, China is investing in archaeological diplomacy that uses shared history and cultural discovery to deepen ties with its neighbors. Uzbekistan has emerged as a key partner in this effort. Beyond trade and infrastructure, the two countries are now working hand in hand to uncover the remnants of ancient civilizations that once thrived along the Silk Road. This collaboration combines science and strategy, offering a soft power approach that complements China’s growing hard power presence in the region. Across Uzbekistan’s Surkhandarya, Samarkand, Ferghana, and Khorezm regions, joint Chinese-Uzbek teams are making discoveries. One notable example is the joint Chinese-Uzbek team working at the Chinar-Tepa site in the upper Surkhandarya River valley, where researchers have uncovered more than 30 ancient house foundations along with a rich collection of cultural artifacts. Another major project has revealed the remains of an Iron Age city-state in the Surkhandarya River basin in southern Uzbekistan. These findings are the result of three excavation seasons conducted between 2024 and 2025, during which the joint team surveyed 47 sites across the basin and identified the area as a major center of ancient Bactria. This cooperation is not just confined to the field. In October 2023, Ferghana State University and Chinese partners launched a joint archaeology department. Their subsequent joint studies of the ancient city of Kuva have revealed key insights into urban planning, including city walls, moats, and roads dating back centuries. Meanwhile, China’s funding for the restoration of the ancient city of Khiva highlights another layer of cultural collaboration on the preservation of shared heritage. For both countries, archaeology is more than an academic pursuit; it's a bridge between culture, economy, and future cooperation. For Uzbekistan, cities like Samarkand, Bukhara, and Khiva are already world-renowned tourist destinations. The government’s ambition to attract up to 15 million foreign visitors underscores tourism’s growing role in national development. Unearthing new historical sites expands this potential, offering travelers a richer experience that spans both the pre-Islamic and Islamic eras. Each discovery deepens the cultural map of Uzbekistan, and each new site means more visitors, more investment, and greater economic diversification for the state. Beyond the economic dimension, the partnership with China is also cultivating a new generation of experts in archaeology and heritage preservation. Many members of these joint excavation teams belong to the post-2000 generation, young professionals who are gaining firsthand experience through collaboration. With access to cutting-edge technologies such as drone-based aerial photography, geomagnetic surveying, and 3D modeling, Uzbek archaeologists and students are learning to combine traditional excavation with modern science. Over time, this knowledge transfer strengthens the country’s human capital base, empowering Uzbekistan to pursue its own archaeological research and heritage conservation independently on a larger scale. For China, promoting joint archaeological exploration aligns closely with the Belt and Road Initiative’s vision of soft connectivity....

History

Rediscovering Mustafa Shokay: A Fragment of Kazakh History in an American Bookstore

While studying in the United States, I have spent my free hours chasing traces of home — fragments of Kazakh history scattered across libraries, archives, and private collections. Much of our past lies far from the steppe, carried off by the tides of empire and exile. My purpose has been simple: to return those fragments, in words and images, to our people. One afternoon in Washington, D.C., I wandered into an old bookstore. The two floors seemed to contain the intellectual wealth of the world — every shelf whispering stories of vanished nations and stubborn identities. I made straight for the section on Central Asia, where the spines of a few rare volumes caught my eye. As I turned the pages of one yellowed book, something stopped me cold: a photograph of Mustafa Shokay, the Kazakh statesman and intellectual who devoted his life to the cause of Turkestan’s autonomy. [caption id="attachment_37511" align="aligncenter" width="596"] Mustafa Shokay in his student days[/caption] A Visionary in Exile Born in 1890 in what is now southern Kazakhstan, Mustafa Shokay emerged as one of the most eloquent voices for Central Asian self-determination during the revolutionary upheavals of 1917. When the Russian Empire collapsed, he helped lead the short-lived Kokand (Turkestan) Autonomy, which sought to build a government based on equality and Muslim representation. Within weeks, the Bolsheviks crushed the movement. Forced into exile, Shokay continued his work from abroad — first in Turkey, then in France — editing journals and writing tirelessly about the rights and dignity of Turkic peoples. His story embodies the tragedy of a generation of intellectuals who dreamed of independence decades before it arrived. During World War II, Shokay’s moral integrity was tested once again. Arrested by Nazi forces after the invasion of France, he was asked to lead the “Turkestan Legion” — a military formation of Soviet prisoners of war. Shokay refused, condemning the brutal treatment of the prisoners and rejecting any collaboration with the Nazi regime. He died in captivity in 1941, but his name endures as a symbol of conscience and courage in Kazakhstan. Richard Pipes and the Rediscovery of Forgotten Nations The photograph I found was printed in The Formation of the Soviet Union: Communism and Nationalism, 1917–1923, a classic study by Richard Pipes, the Harvard historian who helped introduce Western audiences to the complexity of the early Soviet era. Pipes’s research explored how the Bolsheviks built a multiethnic empire from the ruins of tsarist Russia, often manipulating national aspirations for political ends. Crucially, he paid special attention to the Muslim and Turkic regions — to the Caucasus, the Volga, and Central Asia — and recognized that their quest for self-determination represented the “Achilles’ heel” of the Soviet system. His work anticipated the eventual collapse of the USSR and the independence of states like Kazakhstan, Uzbekistan, and Azerbaijan. In one recollection, Pipes described visiting Almaty in the 1950s and watching a May Day parade. As Kazakhs marched silently past portraits of Stalin, he turned to a Russian colleague...

Kazakh Culture

How a Kazakh Writer`s Book About American Couch Grass Was Written

During his lifetime, Gabit Musirepov was celebrated as a people’s writer, translator, dramatist, critic, academician, Hero of Socialist Labor, and statesman. Known in Kazakhstan as the “Master of Words,” he became a figure of national pride, and his works continue to be widely read today. What is less known, however, is the story of his very first book. Long before he became famous for his fiction, Musirepov published a small agricultural manual titled Amirkan Bidayygy (American Couch Grass). Released in 1928 by the “Kazakhstan State” publishing house in Kyzylorda with a circulation of 5,000, the booklet sought to answer a pressing question: how could Kazakh farmers improve their fields and livestock fodder? [caption id="attachment_36744" align="aligncenter" width="308"] First page of book Amirkan Bidayygy (American Couch Grass)[/caption] The introduction explained the need for such a work. At the time, Kazakh peasants planted oats, millet, wheat, and barley, but often without proper techniques. Fodder crops were largely unknown, except in limited areas along the Syr Darya River. Previous manuals existed, but they were poorly translated from Russian or intended for experienced Russian farmers, making them inaccessible to Kazakhs. Musirepov’s book, written in plain language and tailored to local conditions, filled that gap. This was Musirepov’s first published book. He wrote it in early 1927, the same year his first prose work, In the Grip of the Sea, appeared later in the autumn. Fellow writer Sabit Mukanov recalled: “After graduating from the Orenburg Workers’ Faculty in 1926, Gabit entered the Agricultural Academy in Omsk. In early 1927, he sent me his booklet Amirkan Bidayygy for publication. We printed it. I still keep his letter where he wrote, ‘The money from this book kept my family fed for half the winter.’” The publisher acknowledged in the foreword that the young author might have overlooked some scientific details, but praised the work as “one of the best guides for improving the lives of Kazakh peasants,” insisting that every farmer should read it. [caption id="attachment_36745" align="aligncenter" width="436"] Musirepov`s introduction[/caption] In his own introduction, Musirepov explained, “I had two goals. First, to show why farming remained unproductive by pointing out poor land conditions. Second, to offer ways of overcoming these problems and raising productivity. I believe I achieved both.” This statement reflects the sincerity and social purpose that would later define his literary career: whatever he wrote, it was always with the hope of benefiting his people. Musirepov also asked a practical question: What kind of grass does the Kazakh land need? His answer was clear - crops that could withstand severe winters, scorching summers, and drought, while producing abundant, nutritious fodder and enriching the soil. After considering various options, he concluded that yellow alfalfa and American couch grass were the most suitable. Of the two, he argued, couch grass was best suited to Kazakhstan’s harsh climate.

History

“A Road Not for the Faint-Hearted”: How Austrian Prisoners of War Built a Tourist Path in East Kazakhstan

A winding mountain road in East Kazakhstan has become a point of fascination not only for tourists but also for historians, filmmakers, and researchers. Known variously as the Old Austrian Road, the Austrian Route, or Irek Zhol (“Winding Road”), this nearly 50-kilometer path connects the Katon-Karagai and Markakol districts, cutting through pristine wilderness in a national park and a state reserve. Today the path is being restored, but the road’s true value lies in a dramatic and little-known past that stretches back over a century. A New Chapter for an Old Road In July 2025, authorities announced the launch of extensive repair work on the Old Austrian Road. With a budget exceeding $1 million from the regional government, the project includes rebuilding a damaged bridge near Katon-Karagai, replacing culverts, reinforcing slopes, and rehabilitating impassable sections. The most challenging terrain lies near Lake Markakol, where the route crosses swampy stretches, sharp switchbacks, and granite outcroppings. Yet these obstacles have not deterred growing numbers of visitors, off-road enthusiasts, cyclists, hikers, and even horse riders, eager to explore the wild beauty of Eastern Kazakhstan. [caption id="attachment_35993" align="aligncenter" width="1280"] Image: TCA/Yulia Chernyavskaya[/caption] The Road’s Origins in War and Captivity Though few know it, this scenic mountain route has deep strategic and historical roots. Long before the 20th century, locals used it as a trail for horses and carts. But by the early 1900s, the Russian Empire decided to formalize the path, partly due to the road’s proximity to the Chinese border. Between 1914 and 1916, the road was reconstructed, largely by Austrian prisoners of war, mainly ethnic Czechs, Slovaks, Hungarians, and Galicians, captured during World War I. According to Vienna-based historian Lana Berndl, who has conducted extensive research on the topic, roughly 800 prisoners were transported from Austria via St. Petersburg and Omsk to the Irtysh River and then forced to march to the village of Altai (now Katon-Karagai). Around 600 reached their destination. Construction began simultaneously from Katon-Karagai and Alekseevka. Despite working only in the warmer months, the prisoners built a road whose difficulty rivals Alpine passes. During the harsh winters, many worked on local farms and integrated into village life. Some even married and remained in Kazakhstan permanently. [caption id="attachment_35994" align="aligncenter" width="1280"] Image: TCA/Yulia Chernyavskaya[/caption] Tragically, several were later repressed during Stalin’s purges. Among them was Ludwig Fritzen, a Hungarian prisoner who stayed, married a local woman, and was executed in 1937 after being accused of espionage. Remnants of this history remain: roughly 30 graves with Gothic-scripted crosses can still be found in old cemeteries throughout the region, silent testimonies to those who built the road under extreme duress. Film Rekindles Forgotten History In 2016, Austrian filmmaker Ruslana Berndl released a documentary titled The Austrian Road, which brought global attention to the forgotten story. She first learned about the road from a brief mention in a German travel guide that described it as “not for the faint-hearted” and built by Austrian POWs. Intrigued, Berndl, then a doctoral student at the University of...

Archaeology

Underwater Secrets of the Steppe: Archaeologists Unearth Ancient Artifacts in Kazakhstan’s Bogen Reservoir

A team of archaeologists from the Zhanibekov University Research Center has uncovered a trove of ancient artifacts at the Bogen Reservoir in the Ordabasy district of Kazakhstan’s Turkestan region. An unusually dry season significantly lowered the water level, revealing archaeological remains hidden for centuries. Paleolithic Tools and Bronze Age Burials Within just one week of surveying, researchers recovered dozens of Late Paleolithic and Mesolithic stone tools, including chalcedony flakes, cores, and cutting plates. Several Bronze Age burial sites were also excavated. While skeletal remains were poorly preserved, the grave goods were remarkable: decorated ceramics, a gold-plated bronze temple ornament, rings, bracelets, earrings, and hundreds of tiny beads likely used in headdresses. A particularly notable discovery was a burial dated to the 1st century BC-1st century AD. It contained three socketed arrowheads, a utility knife, a belt buckle, and a ceramic jug. Experts say such finds affirm the continuous human settlement of the region over millennia. After analysis, the artifacts will be transferred to a local museum. Bronze Knives, a Saka Ring, and a Lost Medieval City Earlier this year, The Times of Central Asia reported that archaeologists from Margulan University had unearthed two bronze knives near Lake Toraygyr. While attributed to the early Saka period, their design reflects stylistic elements of the Early Iron Age, evidence of both advanced metallurgy and cultural connectivity across Central Asia. At another site, researchers from Al-Farabi Kazakh National University discovered a gold ring from the Scythian era, weighing nearly 8 grams and featuring a lion motif. Experts interpret the human-animal hybrid symbolism as representative of the spiritual worldview of Saka elites in the 4th-3rd centuries BC. The burial also contained the remains of a man and a woman, alongside stone, iron, and gold artifacts. In Zhetysu, archaeologists revealed the ruins of a medieval city likely destroyed during the Mongol invasions. Excavations uncovered preserved brickwork, a defensive tower, and evidence of intense fire damage. Experts have drawn comparisons with other UNESCO-listed sites such as Talgar (Talhiz) and Koilyk. Meanwhile, the Saryarka Archaeological Institute has identified 25 historical and cultural sites in the Shet district of central Kazakhstan. These range from the Bronze Age through the Iron Age and into the medieval period. Excavations are pending, awaiting official permits. The “Golden Man” of East Kazakhstan and the Buddhist Crossroads One of the country’s most celebrated discoveries in recent years remains the 2018 unearthing of the so-called “Golden Man of East Kazakhstan” by archaeologist Zeinolla Samashev. More than 3,000 gold artifacts, including earrings, necklaces, and horse harness ornaments, were recovered from a burial dating to the 7th-8th centuries BC. Further south, in the Aiyrandy Gorge of the Merke district, archaeologists uncovered the remains of an ancient Buddhist temple, including a carved stone head of the Buddha. The find underscores the region’s historic role as a crossroads of religions and cultures along the Silk Road. From Paleolithic tools and Saka-era treasures to lost medieval cities and Buddhist sanctuaries, Kazakhstan’s recent archaeological discoveries reveal an extraordinary continuity of settlement...

Cultural Heritage

UK Gifts Kazakhstan a Copy of Rare 11th-Century Map

Kazakhstan’s National Center for Manuscripts and Rare Books has received a valuable addition to its historical archive, a facsimile of a unique medieval map of Central Asia, gifted by the British Embassy. The original is held at the Bodleian Library at Oxford University. The map is a reproduction of the only known copy of Kitab al-Garib al-Funun wa Mulakh al-Uyun (The Book of Wonderful Sciences and Delights of the Eye), an anonymous 11th-century manuscript. Scholars believe the original work was produced in Egypt between the late 12th and early 13th centuries. Among the notable features of the map is the depiction of the ancient city of Zhankent, referred to in Arabic sources as “Al-Karia al-Hadisa” (Zhana Qala), located in modern-day Zhetysu, Kazakhstan. Between the 8th and 11th centuries, Zhankent served as the capital of the Oghuz state, a confederation of 24 Turkic tribes. Several other historic cities in southern Kazakhstan are also identified on the map. Digitized in full after its arrival at the Bodleian Library in 2002, the manuscript is now recognized as a valuable resource in the study of Islamic geography and medieval manuscript art. Founded in the 14th century, the Bodleian Library is one of Europe’s oldest and largest academic libraries. It is named after Sir Thomas Bodley (1545-1613), an English diplomat and noted collector of manuscripts. Kazakhstan’s own National Center for Manuscripts and Rare Books continues to expand its holdings. A recent expedition to the Abai region uncovered nearly 1,000 manuscripts from the 19th and 20th centuries, with 27 of those works, ranging from religious texts to early printed books, now integrated into the national collection. Notable additions include a work by Abdullah Rumi in Old Turkic, collections of hadiths, and publications printed in Kazan, Orenburg, and Ufa during the late imperial period. In related cultural developments, The Times of Central Asia previously reported that, in late 2024, the British Library and the John Rylands Library in Manchester transferred more than 100 digitized manuscripts to Central Asian scholars. The collection includes rare works by Eastern luminaries such as Makhtumkuli Fargi, Alisher Navoi, and Fizuli.